shortage resulted in the planning of new harbour facilities at Ostia. This enormous project followed the humiliation of the emperor who was pelted with ‘bread’ by the population. At that time merchants were persuaded to put to sea in spite of the winter which was normally the season when no sailing occurred.14 During much of the reign of Claudius evidence suggests that there were serious shortages in the East. Pliny commented that the Nile once rose to an unprecedented height of eighteen cubits.